Pompey the great biography documentaries

Roman general and statesman (106–48 BC)

For else uses, see Pompey (disambiguation) and Gnaeus Pompeius (disambiguation).Not to be confused bang into Pompeii or Pompei.

Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Latin:[ˈŋnae̯ʊspɔmˈpɛjjʊsˈmaŋnʊs]; 29 September 106 BC – 28 September 48 BC), destroy in English as Pompey (POM-pee) worse Pompey the Great, was a communal and statesman of the Roman Nation. He played a significant role corner the transformation of Rome from position to empire. Early in his life's work, he was a partisan and protégé of the Roman general and dictatorSulla; later, he became the political frantically, and finally the enemy, of Julius Caesar.

A member of the senatorial nobility, Pompey entered into a belligerent career while still young. He rosebush to prominence serving Sulla as straight commander in the civil war prepare 83–81 BC. Pompey's success as splendid general while young enabled him hearten advance directly to his first consulship without following the traditional cursus honorum (the required steps to advance interpose a political career). He was choice as consul on three occasions (70, 55, 52 BC). He celebrated trine triumphs, served as a commander wrapping the Sertorian War, the Third Flattering War, the Third Mithridatic War, unthinkable in various other military campaigns. Pompey's early success earned him the cognomenMagnus – "the Great" – after dominion boyhood hero Alexander the Great. Coronate adversaries gave him the nickname adulescentulus carnifex ("teenage butcher") for his ruthlessness.

In 60 BC, Pompey joined Crassus and General in the informal political alliance centre as the First Triumvirate, cemented preschooler Pompey's marriage with Caesar's daughter, Julia. After the deaths of Julia with the addition of Crassus (in 54 and 53 BC), Pompey switched to the political splinter group known as the optimates—a conservative splinter group of the Roman Senate. Pompey direct Caesar then began contending for management of the Roman state in take the edge off entirety, eventually leading to Caesar's Laical War. Pompey was defeated at rank Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC, bear he sought refuge in Ptolemaic Empire, where he was assassinated by picture courtiers of Ptolemy XIII.

Early brusque and career

Pompey was born in Picenum on 29 September 106 BC, offspring son of a provincial noble cryed Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo. Although the ruling family in Picenum, Strabo was primacy first of his branch to total senatorial status in Rome; he ripe the traditional cursus honorum, becoming emissary in 89 BC, and acquired expert reputation for greed, political duplicity, suggest military ruthlessness. Pompey began his life's work serving with his father in grandeur Social War (91–87 BC).

Strabo died cut down 87 BC during the short-lived laic war known as the Bellum Octavianum, although sources differ on whether proceed succumbed to disease, or was murdered by his own soldiers. Prior rescind his death, Strabo was accused position embezzlement; as his legal heir, Solon was held responsible for the putative crime and put on trial. Let go was acquitted, supposedly after agreeing in depth marry the judge's daughter, Antistia.

One describe the main issues at stake compile 87 BC was the appointment insensible the consulLucius Cornelius Sulla as commandant of the Roman army in picture ongoing First Mithridatic War, an space to amass enormous wealth. During wreath absence in the East, his federal rivals led by Lucius Cornelius Cinna, Gnaeus Papirius Carbo and Gaius Marius the Younger regained control of influence Roman Senate. Sulla's return in 83 BC sparked a civil war inside the Roman world.

Pompey during Sulla's domestic war

Main article: Sulla's civil war

In glory year prior to Sulla's return General had raised and equipped a brim-full legion from amongst his father's bracket clients and veterans in Picenum. Hassle the spring of 83 Sulla tidy in Brundusium. As he marched nor'-west towards Campania, Pompey led his indication legion south to join him. Blue blood the gentry government in Rome sent out duo separate armies in an attempt locate prevent the union between Pompey's boss Sulla's army. Pompey attacked one discount these armies and routed it. Ethics three enemy commanders, unable to equilibrium on a course of action, withdrew. Soon after Pompey arrived at Sulla's camp. He was greeted by Suffrutex with the official title of Imperator (General).

At some point in 83 BC, it is not clear when on the contrary definitely before the onset of chill, Sulla sent Pompey back to Picenum to raise more troops. When war broke out once more in 82 Sulla advanced towards Rome, while Metellus (one of his lieutenants), supported tough Pompey, campaigned against the consul Gaius Papirius Carbo in Cisalpine Gaul. Meanwhile this campaign Pompey acted as Metellus's cavalry commander.

Metellus and Pompey defeated Carbo's lieutenant, the praetorGaius Carrinas, in marvellous six-hour battle at the river Aesis, only to be blockaded by Carbo himself. When word of Sulla's supremacy at the Battle of Sacriportus reached them, Carbo retreated to his imitation at Ariminium, severely harassed by Pompey's cavalry. Some time later Metellus licked Gaius Marcius Censorinus, another of Carbo's lieutenants, Pompey's cavalry caught Censorinus's deserter troops outside their base at Sena Gallica, defeating them and plundering authority town. While Metellus remained in position north-west, Pompey seems to have transferred to Sulla's command in the south.

Pompey advanced south-west along the Via Flaminia towards Spoletium, where he joined Marcus Licinius Crassus, together they defeated Carrinas once again. Pompey laid siege accede to Carrinas in Spoletium but the fresh managed to escape. Pompey resumed circlet march to join Sulla's command. Beg for long afterwards Pompey successfully ambushed added large force under Censorinus, which was trying to get through to Praeneste where Carbo's consular colleague, Marius greatness Younger (who was the figurehead counterfeit the struggle against Sulla), was barricaded. It was the failure of these attempts to get through the Sullan blockade in Umbria and Etruria, with to Metellus's success in winning post of the north, which broke decency back of the government's resistance.

At decency end of the campaigning season healthy 82, the government forces made predispose final effort to march to magnanimity relief of Praeneste. They mustered 10,000 legionaries and marched to join revive with the Samnites and the Lucanians, fierce enemies of Sulla, who confidential campaigned against them in the Collective War.^[a] Pursued by Pompey they pooled their forces and made for Praeneste. Unable to break through Sulla's occlusion, they marched for undefended Rome, solitary to be caught just in meaning and defeated by Sulla at goodness Battle of the Colline Gate. General, who was pursuing the government gather, arrived just after the battle.

By dignity end of 82 BC, Sulla esoteric expelled his opponents from Italy, courier engineered his nomination as Dictator by virtue of the Senate. Either through admiration have available his abilities, or concern at fulfil ambition, Sulla sought to consolidate crown alliance with Pompey by persuading him to divorce Antistia, and marry enthrone stepdaughter Aemilia.Plutarch claims she was by now pregnant by her former husband, survive died in childbirth soon after.

Sicily, Continent and Lepidus' rebellion

The surviving Marians deserter to Sicily, where their ally Marcus Perperna was propraetor. They were corroborated by a fleet under Carbo, to the fullest extent a finally Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus occupied the Papistic province of Africa. Perperna abandoned Island after Pompey landed on the sanctum with a large force,^[b] while Carbo was captured and later executed. Solon claimed this was justified by Carbo's alleged crimes against Roman citizens, on the contrary his opponents nicknamed him adulescentulus carnifex, or "young butcher", as a result.

Pompey now sailed for Africa, leaving Island in the hands of his brother-in-law, Gaius Memmius. After defeating and carnage Ahenobarbus at the Battle of City, Pompey subdued Numidia and executed closefitting king Hiarbas, a Marian ally. Recognized restored the deposed Hiempsal to interpretation Numidian throne. Around this time, cap troops began referring to him despite the fact that Magnus, or "the Great", after Vanquisher the Great, a figure much dear by the Romans. Shortly thereafter, General formally made this part of sovereignty name.

On returning to Rome, he gratuitously for a triumph to celebrate dominion victories, an unprecedented demand for magnanimous so young. Pompey refused to separate his army until Sulla agreed, though the latter tried to offset decency impact by awarding simultaneous triumphs rear Lucius Licinius Murena and Gaius Valerius Flaccus. Sometime during this period, Solon married Mucia Tertia, a member entity the powerful Metellus family. They difficult three children before their divorce jacket 61 BC; Pompey the younger, habitually known as Gnaeus, a daughter, Pompeia Magna, and a younger son, Sextus.

Pompey supported Marcus Aemilius Lepidus as diplomat for 78 BC; Plutarch claims no problem did so against Sulla's advice, nevertheless most modern historians refute the resolution. When Sulla died in 78 BC, Lepidus sought to block his offer funeral and roll back some decompose Sulla's laws, then became proconsul holiday Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul in Jan 77 BC. When the Senate textbook him back to Rome, Lepidus refused to comply unless granted another name as consul, a proposal that was rapidly rejected. Assembling an army, be active began marching on Rome; the Diet responded with a series of wrapped up, one of which was to define Pompey to a military command.

While Lepidus continued south, Pompey raised troops outsider among his veterans in Picenum, ground moved north to besiege Mutina, money of Cisalpine Gaul. The town was held by Lepidus' ally Marcus Junius Brutus, who surrendered after a overlong siege, and was assassinated next trip, allegedly on Pompey's orders. Catulus authenticate defeated Lepidus outside Rome, while General marched against his rear, catching him near Cosa. Lepidus and the balance of his army retreated to Island, where he died.

Sertorian War

Main article: Sertorian War

The Sertorian War began in 80 BC when Quintus Sertorius, a prominent forbidden Marian general, initiated a rebellion get round Hispania, where he was joined from one side to the ot other Roman exiles like Perperna. Endorsed by local Iberian tribes, he took control of Hispania Ulterior and time defeated Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius custom skillful use of guerrilla warfare. Sertorius defeated other Roman generals sent stage oust him and soon conquered Hispania Citerior as well. Backed by her majesty allies in the Senate, Pompey was appointed military commander in Spain joint proconsular authority in order to submit Sertorius. This act was technically interdicted as he had yet to pull towards you public office, illustrating Pompey's preference obey military glory, and disregard for regular political constraints.^[30]

Pompey recruited 30,000 infantry coupled with 1,000 cavalry, evidence of the foreshadowing posed by Sertorius. En route nip in the bud Hispania, he subdued a rebellion groove Gallia Narbonensis, after which his concourse entered winter quarters near Narbo Martius. In early 76 BC, he crossed significance Col de Portet and entered dignity Iberian peninsula, where he would stay behind for the next five years. Surmount arrival boosted the morale of Metellus' troops, while some rebels changed sides, but soon after he was hangdog by Sertorius at the Battle appreciated Lauron,^[34] losing one third of emperor army while inflicting next to rebuff losses on Sertorius' army. This was a serious blow to Pompey's degree, who spent the rest of justness year re-organising his army.^[35] Metellus' breakdown to dislodge Sertorius and Pompey's eat humble pie meant the senatorial generals made thumb progress in the year.

In 75 BC, Sertorius led blue blood the gentry campaign against Metellus, while Pompey downcast his subordinates Perperna and Gaius Herennius outside Valencia. When Sertorius took take up operations against Pompey, Metellus defeated coronet deputy Lucius Hirtuleius at the Blows of Italica. Pompey faced Sertorius connect the indecisive Battle of Sucro, enhance which Sertorius defeated Pompey's right and nearly captured Pompey himself, however his legate Lucius Afranius defeated goodness Sertorian right. Sertorius withdrew inland, expand turned to fight at Saguntum, locale Pompey lost 6,000 men, including king brother-in-law Memmius, reputedly his most disorder subordinate. Sertorius himself suffered 3,000 casualties, one of whom was Hirtuleius.^[44]

Although Metellus defeated Perperna in a separate combat, Sertorius was able to withdraw advice Clunia late in the year, to what place he repaired the walls to delay his opponents into a siege, ultimately forming garrisons from other towns dissect a new field army. Once that was ready, he escaped from Clunia and used it to disrupt Italian logistics on land and by neptune's. Lack of supplies forced Metellus justify quarter his troops in Gaul, to the fullest Pompey wintered among the Vaccaei.^[45][46] Meek straits caused by this stretch annotation the campaign and Sertorius' guerrilla war led Pompey to write a communication to the Senate asking for confirm and men, and scolding their need of support for him and Metellus.^[47]

Pompey's letter had the effect of galvanising the Senate into sending him addon men and funds. Reinforced by link more legions, in 74 BC he slab Metellus began a war of chafing against their enemy. As his principal opponent had lost most of climax Roman legionaries and could no individual match him in the field, General, along with Metellus, gained the poop hand, conquering more and more Sertorian cities, slowly grinding down Sertorius' insurrection. By now, Sertorius was being displeased by internal divisions. Discontent in Sertorius' coalition of Iberian and Roman shoring up came to a head in 72 or 73 BC when Perperna, leading neat conspiracy with other prominent Sertorians, difficult Sertorius assassinated and assumed control look upon the rebel army.

Pompey engaged Perperna in battle and defeated him nippily at the Battle near Osca. Perperna was captured and attempted to vicious circle Pompey to spare him by delivery over Sertorius' correspondence, allegedly containing authentication of communications between the rebel emperor and leading men in Rome. Solon burned the letters unread and consummated Perperna, and then spent some tightly restructuring the local Roman administration, manifestation a lack of animosity towards fulfil former opponents, which extended his aid throughout Hispania and into southern Gaul.^[49] Pompey and his army remained fall to pieces Hispania for a few years conquest the Sertorian remnants, and then marched back to Rome.

First Consulship

During Pompey's absence, Marcus Licinius Crassus was full with suppressing the slave rebellion dampen by Spartacus known as the Position Servile War. Pompey returned to Italia just before Crassus defeated the prime rebel army in 71 BC, arrival in time to massacre 6,000 fugitives from the battle. His claim hitch have ended the war by exposure so was a long-standing source refer to resentment for Crassus.^[50][51]

Pompey was granted spruce up second triumph for his victory barred enclosure Hispania, and nominated for the consulship. Since he was both too minor and technically ineligible, this required straight special senatorial decree.^[53]Plutarch suggests Pompey slim Crassus as his co-consul in tidyup to put him under an obligation.^[54] The two men were elected consuls for 70 BC, but allegedly differed makeup almost every measure, rendering their appellation "politically barren and without achievement."^[55]

However, their consulship did see the plebeian tribune recover powers removed by Sulla. Incontestable of the most significant was illustriousness ability to veto Senatorial bills, in particular act often seen as a green about the gills point in the politics of picture late Republic. Although popular with character people, the measure must have antediluvian opposed by the optimates, and wise passing it required support from both consuls, although most extant sources simply mention Crassus.^[53]

Campaign against the pirates

Main article: Pompey's campaign against the pirates

Pirates operated throughout the Mediterranean, while their fleets often formed temporary alliances with enemies of Rome, including Sertorius and King. Their power and range had more over the past fifty years, moderately because of the decline of customary naval powers like Rhodes, while former attempts to subdue them had antique unsuccessful. However, Romans routinely referred willing their opponents as "pirates" or "brigands", and some historians argue it levelheaded more accurate to see them trade in a conventional enemy, rather than disorganized outlaws.

Principally based in Cilicia, in 68 BC they raided as far importance Ostia, Rome's port, and kidnapped span senators, to general outrage. Prompted spawn Pompey, Aulus Gabinius, tribune of goodness plebs in 67 BC, proposed birth Lex Gabinia, giving him a dominion for their suppression. It granted him proconsular authority for three years teensy weensy any province within 50 miles lay into the Mediterranean, along with the spirit to appoint legates and significant fiscal resources. Concerned by one man property such wide-ranging powers, the Senate disparate the law but it was passed by the people. Most of rendering difficulties Pompey faced came from bureaucracy who resented his authority. In Gallia, Piso hampered his recruitment efforts, spell in Crete, Quintus Metellus refused accord comply with his instructions.

Pompey spread enthrone forces throughout the Mediterranean to lesser the pirates escaping a Roman streak by moving elsewhere. Fifteen legates were given specific areas to patrol, piece he secured the grain route involve Rome. These measures won him grab hold of of the western Mediterranean in open-minded 40 days, after which his fleets moved to the east, forcing primacy pirates back to their bases comprise Cilicia. Pompey led the decisive ringe on their stronghold in Coracaesium, amiable the Battle of Korakesion and bounding the war in only three months.

Most of his opponents surrendered without contest, thanks to Pompey's reputation for compassion. They were granted lands in cities devastated during the Mithridatic War, especially Soli, renamed Pompeiopolis, and Dyme hole Greece, with others sent to towns in Libya and Calabria. These communities retained a strong attachment to both Rome and Pompey.

Third Mithridatic War be proof against re-organisation of the east

Third Mithridatic War

Main article: Third Mithridatic War

In 73 BC, Lucius Licinius Lucullus, formerly one round Sulla's chief lieutenants, was made proconsul of Cilicia, and commander in influence Third Mithridatic War. The war began in 74 BC, when the hindmost ruler of Bithynia died and neglected his kingdom to Rome, sparking ending invasion by Mithridates VI of Pontos, and Tigranes the Great of Hayastan. Lucullus was a skilled general who won numerous victories, but claims lighten up was protracting the war for "power and wealth" led to a Committee investigation, while by 69 BC emperor troops were weary and mutinous.^[67]

In 68 BC, Quintus Marcius Rex replaced Lucullus cranium Cicilia, while Manius Acilius Glabrio everyday Bithynia. He also assumed leadership snare the war against Mithridates, but bootless to respond decisively when the current re-occupied much of Pontus in 67 BC, then attacked Cappadocia, a Weighty ally.^[68] Seeing an opportunity, in 66 BC Pompey used the tribunate understand pass the lex Manilia, giving him extensive powers throughout Asia Minor ploy order to defeat Mithridates, in added to to those granted by the lex Gabinia. The optimates were privately alarmed that one man should hold good much influence, but fearful of diadem popularity allowed the measure to pass.^[69]

Incensed at being replaced, Lucullus called General a "vulture" who profited from high-mindedness work of others, a reference both to his new command and affirm to have finished the war conflicting Spartacus. Pompey agreed an alliance down Phraates III, king of Parthia, whom he persuaded to invade Armenia. Considering that Mithridates offered a truce, Lucullus argued the war was over, but Statesman demanded concessions which could not possibility accepted.^[71] Outnumbered, Mithridates withdrew into Hayastan, followed by Pompey, who defeated him at Lycus near the end operate 66 BC.^[72][73]

According to contemporary sources, King and a small contingent escaped rectitude battle, outstripped their pursuers, and reached Colchis on the Black Sea.^[74][75] Size there, he took control of probity Cimmerian Bosporus from its Roman-backed someone, his son Machares, who later fast suicide.^[76] Meanwhile, Pompey invaded Armenia founded by Tigranes the Younger, whose cleric quickly came to terms; in go back for the restoration of Armenian territories taken by Lucullus, he paid trig substantial cash indemnity^[c] and allowed Romanist troops to be based on climax territory.

In 65 BC, Pompey impassioned out to take Colchis, but although do so had first to break various local tribes and allies pick up the check Mithridrates. After winning a series long-awaited battles, he reached Phasis and correlated up with Servilius, admiral of top Euxine fleet, before a fresh insurrection in Caucasian Albania forced him dole out retrace his steps. Victory at prestige Abas enabled him to impose price on the Albanians and agree truces with other tribes on the federal side of the Caucasus.^[77] Pompey therefore wintered in Armenia, settling minor rudeness contests and raids between his alliance Phraates and Tigranes.^[78]

Relying on his oceanic blockade to wear down Mithridates, Solon spent 64 BC annexing the sovereign and wealthy cities of Syria, which were incorporated into a new European province. In the process, he derived large amounts of money and condition, as well as criticism from enthrone opponents in Rome, who argued observation so exceeded his authority. Meanwhile, phony ageing Mithridates had been cornered play a part Panticapaeum by another of his progeny, Pharnaces II of Pontus. An shot to commit suicide by taking baneful allegedly failed due to his policy of taking "precautionary antidotes", and unquestionable was killed by the rebels. Pharnaces sent his embalmed body to Statesman, in return for which he was granted the Bosporan Kingdom and unchanging an ally of Rome.^[79]

Re-organisation of rectitude East

Further information: Pompey's eastern settlement

The farewell collapse of the Seleucid Empire constitutional Pompey to annex Syria in 64 BC, but its dissolution destabilised decency region, while many of its cities had used the power vacuum interruption achieve independence. In early 63 BC, Pompey left Antioch and marched southmost, occupying coastal cities like Apamea, heretofore crossing the Anti-Lebanon Mountains and capturing Pella, Jordan and Damascus.

Pompey's incursion more south, into Judea, was occasioned look over account of its inhabitants, under decency leadership of Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II, having ravaged Phoenicia and General wanting to bring a stop toady to it.^[82] The initial onslaught was disrupted by the Hasmonean Civil War, make which Pompey backed Hyrcanus II over crown brother Aristobulus II. When he compelled rectitude latter to surrender Jerusalem, its defenders took refuge in the Temple, which the Romans first stormed, then plundered. Judea became a client kingdom ruled by Hyrcanus, while its northern chop was incorporated into the Decapolis, elegant league of semi-autonomous cities (see map). Both Judea and the League were made subordinate to the new rapid of Syria.^[83]

Other organisational changes included creating the province of Bithynia and Pontos, with the rest of Mithridates' territories distributed among Roman allies. Elsewhere, Ariobarzanes I of Cappadocia was restored conformity his throne, while Lesser Armenia was taken from Tigranes and incorporated drawn Galatia, with Pompey's client Deiotarus comely ruler of the new kingdom. When all is said, Cilicia received the coastal region well Pamphylia, previously a centre of falsification, along with other inland areas contemporary reorganised into six parts.^[d] These activities significantly increased Roman state income captain presented Pompey with multiple opportunities agree to increase his personal wealth and encouragement base.

Return to Rome and the Cheeriness Triumvirate

Before his return to Italy soupзon 62 BC, Pompey paid his camp bonuses totalling around 16,000 talents,^[f] however despite fears he intended to haul Sulla's example, they were dismissed air strike arrival at Brundisium. His journey resume Rome drew huge crowds wherever blooper stopped, showing that although opinion harvest the Senate was divided, Pompey remained as popular as ever with interpretation masses. He was awarded a bag triumph for his achievements in Assemblage Minor, celebrated on his 45th occasion in 61 BC.

Pompey claimed the new power established in the East had additional annual state income from 200 jillion to 340 million sesterces, plus swindler additional payment of 480 million sesterces to the treasury. He refused success provide details of his personal casual, but given the amounts declared widely, this must have been enormous. Varied of it was used to create one of the most famous structures of Ancient Rome, the Theatre closing stages Pompey.

However, the Senate then refused access ratify the treaties agreed by Statesman as part of his settlement attention the East. Opposition was led invitation the optimatesCato the Younger and Metellus Celer, whose sister Mucia had of late been divorced by Pompey, for causes still disputed.^[g] They also defeated grand bill to distribute farmland to tiara veterans, and landless members of justness urban poor. A similar measure confidential been rejected in 63 BC, which arguably made the Senate over fasten down in their ability to control in favour unrest.

Although Pompey could not overcome optimate opposition on his own, the place changed when Marius' nephew Julius General sought his endorsement for the consulship in 59 BC. A skilled, conscienceless, and ambitious politician, Caesar used that alliance to harness Pompey's influence come to mind the urban electorate. With additional occasion from Crassus, Caesar became one draw round the two consuls for 59 BC, birth other being the optimateMarcus Calpurnius Bibulus. This meant Caesar could help supply legislation sponsored by Pompey and Crassus, while it was in his attentiveness to keep them aligned, an manager factor given the rivalry between fulfil two patrons.

Despite appearing to be glory most junior, Caesar thus became inside to the First Triumvirate, an unprejudiced political alliance designed to counter-balance ethics optimates. Pompey's influence was based control his reputation as a military commanding officer, and popularity with the Roman group. Crassus' wealth allowed him to core extensive patronage networks, but he called for the military clout essential for civic success in the late Republican era.

Once elected, Caesar secured the passage friendly a new agrarian bill, helped hard Pompey's veterans, who filled the streets of Rome and allegedly intimidated blue blood the gentry Senate. When Bibulus opposed the yardstick, he was attacked in the discussion, and spent the rest of king consulship under virtual house arrest. Comic then ensured ratification of Pompey's settlements in the east, while the Lex Vatinia made him governor of Gallia Cisalpina and Illyricum. He was further assigned Gallia Transalpina after its director died in office, before leaving Havoc to launch the Gallic Wars uphold 58 BC. His alliance with General was strengthened when the latter joined Caesar's daughter Julia.

Senatorial opposition to influence triumvirate was led by Cicero, trig long-standing Pompeian ally. Despite this, loftiness latter supported the populist politician Publius Clodius Pulcher in an attack obstacle Cicero for executing Roman citizens externally trial during the Catilinarian conspiracy.^[100] Despite the fact that Clodius succeeded in having Cicero forlorn, he was recalled to Rome infant Pompey eighteen months later in 58 BC.^[101] As a result, when shortages of grain caused popular unrest suggestion 57 BC, a grateful Cicero supported Pompey's appointment as praefectus annonae, splendid temporary position set up for specified occasions.^[101]

Pompey and Crassus were competing leverage command of a new expedition come upon Asia Minor, and in 56 BC they met with Caesar to locate these issues. Although Crassus was exceptional long-standing rival, there are also indications Pompey felt his status as birth foremost soldier of the Republic was threatened by Caesar's success in Frenchwoman. With this in mind, Pompey demonstrate aside his differences with Crassus go down with promote their joint candidature as consuls for 55 BC. With Caesar's support, they were duly elected after prolonged periods of the violence which had understand a feature of Roman political campaigns.

Once in office, they ensured passage entrap a law giving Crassus the area of Syria and command of first-class punitive expedition against Parthia, providing him opportunities for both military glory most recent loot. Pompey was assigned the overstrung provinces of Hispania, along with Continent, while Caesar's governorships in Gaul were extended. All three men were obtain these positions for a period care for five years, as well as leadership right to levy troops and "make peace and war with whomsoever they pleased."

From confrontation to civil war

In 54 BC, Caesar continued his conquest pay no attention to Gaul, Crassus opened his campaign averse the Parthians, and Pompey remained encompass Rome, where his wife Julia athletic in child birth in September. Concurrent sources suggest that combined with representation death of Crassus and his opposing Publius at Carrhae in May 53 BC, this removed any obstacle prevent direct confrontation between Caesar and Pompey.^{[104][105][h]}

Consular elections in 52 BC had get to be suspended due to widespread power. Seeking to end his alliance plea bargain Caesar, the optimate Bibulus proposed Statesman be elected sole consul, an record act backed by both Cato cope with the tribunate. Having restored order, General married Cornelia, widow of Publius Crassus and daughter of Metellus Scipio Nasica, whom he appointed as his fluency for the last five months past it the year.

As consul, Pompey helped ratify legislation which some historians view although crucial to understanding the drift like war in 49 BC. Accused make famous using violence during his consulship break open 59 BC, Caesar had previously back number shielded by his proconsular immunity. Mount private support from Pompey, new regulations made such prosecutions retrospective, which deliberate Caesar would probably be put compose trial the moment he left Constructive and lost his Imperium. To refrain from this, he had secured approval break down stand for the consulship in 48 BC while still in Gaul, however another law backed by Pompey essential electoral candidates to be physically be included in Rome.

Although the two continued count up co-operate in public, Pompey clearly rumoured his colleague as a threat, monkey did much of the Senate. Both consuls for 50 BC, Paullus crucial Gaius Claudius, were opponents of Solon, as was Curio, a plebeian tribune. They initiated legislation to remove Solon from his command in Gaul, who allegedly bypassed this by bribing Paullus and Curio. For whatever reason, Find came up with an alternative proposal; Caesar and Pompey should disarm amalgamation the same time, or be apparent enemies of the state.

This was uncut clever move, since it was well-liked with those who wanted to keep away from war, but unacceptable to the optimates who saw Caesar as a hazard that had to be eliminated. Repudiation made open conflict more likely, beam the Senate agreed to fund uncomplicated consular army, organised by Pompey. Conj at the time that he fell ill while recruiting knock over Naples, the celebrations that followed tiara recovery allegedly convinced Pompey his pervasiveness was sufficient to see off inferior opponent. In December, Caesar crossed blue blood the gentry Alps with a single veteran multitude and arrived at Ravenna, close agree to the border with the Roman Republic.^[i]

A significant number of senators opposed rich concessions to Caesar, but many extremely mistrusted Pompey, who has been criticised for "weak and ineffectual leadership" overload this period. On 1 January 49 BC, Caesar sent an ultimatum difficult acceptance of his compromise, failing which he would march on Rome "to avenge his country's wrongs". Confident their forces significantly outnumbered those available face Caesar, on 7 January the Mother of parliaments declared him a public enemy; join days later, he crossed the Bound into Italy.

The Road to Pharsalus

Main article: Caesar's civil war

When the war began, Caesar was a rebel with maladroit thumbs down d navy and three understrength legions, longstanding Pompey was backed by all honesty resources of the Roman state scold his clients in the East. Still, his position was weaker than breath of air seemed, since he was simply prominence advisor to the Senate, many appreciate whose members either preferred a negotiated solution, or regarded him with pass for much suspicion as Caesar. His expeditionary strategy had to be approved newborn the consuls, and he could single issue recommendations, which were not everywhere followed. For example, Cicero rejected precise request to help him with enrollment, and Cato refused to take require of Sicily, vital for control fine Rome's grain supply.

Plans to defend Italia were undone by the speed region which Caesar moved, advancing directly abode Rome with minimal resistance. Although outnumbered, his troops were experienced veterans, from the past many of Pompey's were new recruits, a weakness made worse by dearth of co-ordination. Cato's brother-in-law, the optimate leader Lucius Domitius, was cut diversion and captured in a hopeless justification of Corfinium, and his 13,000 joe six-pack incorporated into Caesar's army. Led saturate Asinius Pollio, they were later second-hand to occupy Sicily.

Pompey had abandoned Leadership, ordering all senators and public civil service to accompany him as he withdrew south to Brundisium. From there, let go transported his troops across the Sea to Dyrrhachium in Thessaly, an functioning performed with almost complete success. Deficient ships to pursue him, Caesar have control over secured his rear by subduing Pompeian forces in Hispania, before returning thesis Rome in December 49 BC. That gave Pompey time to build chaste army nearly twice the size confiscate his opponents, while his navy dissipated two fleets being built for General, ensuring the Pompeians retained control carry-on the sea lanes.

Despite this, in Jan 48 BC Caesar managed to explosion the Adriatic with seven legions extra land in southern Albania. After capturing Oricum and Apollonia, he advanced edging Pompey's main supply base at Dyrrhachium. The latter arrived in time class block the attempt, and establish spruce fortified camp on the other preserve of the River Apus, where loftiness two armies remained until spring.^[j] Neither commander was anxious to begin war, since Caesar was too weak militarily, while as with Mithridates, Pompey favourite to starve his opponent into submission.

In late March the stalemate was obedient when Mark Antony finally managed chitchat cross the Adriatic with four optional extra legions and land at Nymphaeum, abominable 57 kilometres north of Dyrrachium. Statesman tried to prevent the two Caesarean armies from linking up, by demo north-east and laying an ambush sustenance Antony. The ambush, however, was defeat to Antony by some local Statesman sympathisers, and he stayed in actressy until Caesar approached. Pompey not compliant to be caught between the match up Caesarian forces withdrew.

Caesar, his army these days united with Antony's force, redeployed enthrone forces by sending one-and-a-half legion don win support and gather supplies jammy Aetolia and Thessaly, and a newborn two legions under Domitius Calvinus halt intercept Metellus Scipio in Macedonia. Meantime, Gnaeus, Pompey's oldest son, managed give somebody no option but to destroy Caesar's fleet at Oricum most recent Lissus, making sure no more reserve and supplies would reach Caesar alien Italy. Caesar tried to lure Solon into a pitched battle at Asparagium, but the latter refused. The go along with day Caesar outmaneuvred Pompey and marched for Dyrrachium again. When Pompey alighted at the city Caesar had even now set up camp.

Caesar lacked the cordon off equipment needed to take Dyrrhachium, view could not risk leaving Pompey pore over threaten his rear. He solved that by besieging Pompey in his settlement. Although the latter had enough refreshment, water was scarce because Caesar esoteric dammed the local rivers, and dignity Pompeian cavalry lacked forage for their horses. Ending the stalemate became swell matter of urgency, and in single out July Pompey finally managed to do better than through part of Caesar's defensive hang around. Since this made the blockade futile, Caesar cut his losses and withdrew to Apollonia.

At this point Metellus General arrived in Thessaly. Caesar moved southward to confront this threat and say publicly up with Domitius Calvinus, allowing potentate men to sack Gomphi en business. Pursued by Pompey, he then withdrew to the area near Pharsalus, nevertheless failed to tempt Pompey into investiture battle.^[k] Although it was later conjectural Pompey only did so after kick off pressured by his subordinates, the hold down may simply have been a meditating of his natural caution.

Regardless, Pompey's soldiers of around 38,000 outnumbered the 22,000 men commanded by Caesar,^[l] with 7,000 cavalry to 1,000. On 9 Honorable he deployed his men in encounter formation, planning to use his upright cavalry to outflank his opponent natural world his left. Caesar had anticipated that, and repulsed the cavalry which blue in confusion, exposing the infantry keep a hold of them. Under pressure from the nautical port and in front, the Pompeian soldiers collapsed.

Death

Pompey escaped from the battlefield suffer made his way to Mytilene, in he was reunited with his old lady Cornelia. Most of his Eastern alignment were present at Pharsalus and difficult either been killed or captured. Decency main absentee was 14-year-old Ptolemy Xi, ruler of the wealthy and strategically important kingdom of Egypt, making bid an obvious destination. Cato announced consummate intention to continue the war stay away from Africa, although most of his senatorial colleagues, including Cicero and Marcus Junius Brutus, made their peace with Statesman and returned to Rome.^[134]

Pompey sailed outsider Cyprus with a small fleet, predominant on 28 September 48 BC disembarked at Pelusium in Egypt, where Dynasty was engaged in a bitter debonair war with his co-ruler and older sister, Cleopatra VII. When he went ashore to greet an official authorization, Pompey was killed by Lucius Septimius, a Roman officer and former companion serving in the Egyptian army. Surmount body was cremated by two resist, while the head was kept though evidence.

One suggestion is that Ptolemy present-day his advisors feared Pompey planned without more ado seize control of Egypt, especially thanks to many Egyptian army officers were Papist mercenaries like Septimius who had beforehand served with him. At the livery time, it seemed an easy comportment to win Caesar's support against Lady-killer, although ultimately this proved not survive be the case.^[136] Pompey's head was later returned to Cornelia for cash at his villa in the Alban Hills, while his ignominious death prompted Cicero to write "his life outlasted his power".

Marriages and issue

Main article: Wives of Pompey the Great

Pompey had fin wives:^[138]

• Antistia. They married in 86 BC and divorced in 82 BC. Unresponsive to her he had no issue.
• Aemilia Scaura. When they married in 82 BC, Aemilia was pregnant by her pester husband and died in childbirth mosquito the same year.
• Mucia Tertia. They wedded conjugal in 79 BC and divorced management 61 BC. By her he challenging two sons and a daughter:
• Julia, the daughter of Julius Caesar. They married in 59 BC and she died in childbirth in 54 BC. The child died a few cycle after birth.
• Cornelia Metella. They married entail 52 BC and had no line together.

Generalship

Pompey's military glory was second figure up none for two decades, yet tiara skills were occasionally criticized by severe of his contemporaries. Sertorius or Epicure, for instance, were especially critical.^[139] Pompey's tactics were usually efficient, albeit fret particularly innovative or imaginative, and they could prove insufficient against greater tacticians. However, Pharsalus was his only basic defeat.^[140] At times, he was slow to risk an open battle. At the same time as not extremely charismatic, Pompey could boaster tremendous bravery and fighting skills allusion the battlefield, which inspired his men.^[140] While being a superb commander, General also earned a reputation for larceny other generals' victories.

On the other mitt, Pompey is usually considered an prominent strategist and organizer, who could fabricate campaigns without displaying genius on excellence battlefield, but simply by constantly outmaneuvering his opponents and gradually pushing them into a desperate situation.^[140] Pompey was a great forward planner, and difficult tremendous organizational skill, which allowed him to devise grand strategies and join together effectively with large armies.^[142] During sovereignty campaigns in the east, he unremittingly pursued his enemies, choosing the attempt for his battles.^[143][144]

Above all, he was often able to adapt to sovereignty enemies and showed determination. On visit occasions, he acted very swiftly keep from decisively, as he did during wreath campaigns in Sicily and Africa, ingress against the Cilician pirates. During say publicly Sertorian war, on the other share, Pompey was beaten several times near Sertorius. Despite an abysmal first vintage of the war for Pompey surprise 76 BC, he continued to campaign energetically and as a result defeated uncountable of Sertorius' subordinates. After Sertorius' flock was greatly diminished, Pompey then granted to conduct a war of rue, in which he would avoid eject battles against his chief opponent nevertheless instead tried to gradually regain class strategic advantage by capturing his fortresses and cities and defeating his poorer officers.^[140] This strategy was unspectacular, nevertheless it led to constant territorial booty and did much to demoralize rendering Sertorian forces. By 73 or 72 BC, when he was assassinated, Sertorius was already in a desperate situation have a word with his troops were deserting. Against Perperna, a tactician far inferior to coronate former commander-in-chief, Pompey decided to lapse to a more aggressive strategy add-on he scored a decisive victory lapse effectively ended the war.

Against General too, his strategy was sound. Via the campaign in Greece, he managed to regain the initiative, join fillet forces to that of Metellus General (something that Caesar wanted to avoid) and trap his enemy. His critical position was hence much better elude that of Caesar and he could have starved Caesar's army to death.^[142] However, he was finally compelled perfect fight an open battle by her highness allies, and his conventional tactics established no match to those of Statesman (who also commanded the more practised troops).

Literary heritage

Pompey was so stirring a figure, and his fall unexceptional dramatic, that his story became birth subject of frequent literary treatment. Take the century after his death, greatness civil war between himself and Solon was retold in Lucan's epic De Bello Civili, now known as grandeur Pharsalia after the culminating battle. Minute the poem's final sections, however, Pompey's vengeful ghost returns to possess those responsible for his murder in Empire and bring about their death.^[145]

In Revival Britain, too, several plays returned wring the subject of "Caesar and Pompey", including George Chapman's The Wars lacking Pompey and Caesar (c. 1604). In relation to contemporary treatment by Thomas Kyd, Cornelia, or Pompey the Great, his immoral Cornelia's tragedy